Tuesday, October 9, 2012

RICE-LEAF FOLDER CONTROL

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Rice (Oryza sativa)

Pest Management

Distribution
Andhra Pradesh, Maharastra,Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa.

Host
Leersia hexandra, Echinocloa colonum, Paspalum conjugatum, Ophismamenus burmanii, Oryza sativa var.fauta and Sacciolepis interrupta, Brachiaria mutica, Agropyron repens.

Destructive stage
Larva

Description of the pest
Larva is pale green transparent, actively moving caterpillar. The adult is orange brown moth with many dark wavy lines in the centre and dark band on the margin of wings.

Biology
The female moth lays eggs in batches of 10-12, which are arranged in linear row in the lower surface of leaves. The eggs are flat, oval in shape and yellowish white in colour. The egg period is 4-7 days. Larva is 15-20 mm long pale green transparent actively moving caterpillar. The larval period is 15-20 days. It pupates inside the leaf fold. The pupa is greenish brown. The pupal period is 6-8 days. Total life cycle: 25-35 days.

Symptoms
The caterpillar folds the leaves longitudinally and remains inside. It scrapes the green tissues of the leaves with in the field and makes them white and dry. Gradually the leaves dry up and change brown. During severe infestation the whole field exhibits scorched appearance.

ETL
10% damaged leaves - Vegetative stage, 5% damaged leaves (Flag leaf) - Flowering stage.

Management
Use resistant varieties like TNAU LFR 831311, Cauveri, Akash, TKM-6, and IET 7511, IET 9225 and IET 9797. Clipping of affected leaves reduces the pest population. Keep the bunds clean by trimming them and remove the grassy weeds. Avoid use of excessive nitrogenous fertilizer. Set up light traps to attack and kill the moths. Release Trichogramma chilonis on 37, 44 and 51 DAT thrice followed by three sprays of monocrotophos 36 SL @ 1000 ml/ha on 58, 65 and 72 DAT. The application of indoxacarb @ 30g a.i per ha is effective against leaf folder. Spray neem seed kernel extract 5% @ 25 kg (or) fenifrothion 50 EC 1.01 (or) phasalone 35 EC 1.5 l (or) chlorpyriphos 20 EC 1.25 l/ha.

Natural Enemy
Egg parasitoids:Trichogramma japonicum, Trichogramma sp., Copidosomopsis nacolidae, Metioche vitticolis. Larval parasitoids: Goniozus triangulifer, Cotesia cypris, C.rufierus, Temelucha philippinesis, Macrocentrus philippinesis, Cardiochiles philippinesis, Trichogramma naphalocrosis, Blepharipa sp.,Theocarcelia oroulta. Pupal parasitoids: Xanthopimpla flvolineata, Tetrastichus ayyari, Brachymeria albotibialis, Charops bicolor, Ishnojoppa luteator. Predator: Conocephalus lividipennis, Paederus fuscipes (Staphylinidae), Ophionia indica (Carabidae), Andrallus spinidens. Pathogens: Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium sp., Fusarium sp., Nomuraea sp., Zoophthora radicans Paecilomyces sp., Entomophthora sp., Pseudomonas sp., Bacillus sp., Granulosis virus.
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rice-BPH


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Rice (Oryza sativa)

Pest Management

Distribution
Orissa, Kerala, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab.

Host
Leersia hexandra.

Destructive stage
Nymph and adult.

Description of the pest
Eggs are covered by the dome shaped egg plug secreted by the female. Only the tip of the eggs protrude from outside. The newly hatched nymph is cottony white and turns purple brown within an hour. The nymphs are white to strongly mottled dark grey or black and white in colour. The brown plant hopper has a brown body and chestnut brown eyes. Adult measures about 4 - 4.5 mm in length. It can fly a long distance drifting with the wind. Adults are of two forms viz., Macropterous (long winged) and brachypterous (truncate winged).

Biology
The brachypterous female makes an incision in the leaf sheath and inserts 200-300 small eggs. Egg period is 6 days; Nymphal period is 15 days. Adult longevity is 18-20 days.

Symptoms
Nymphs and adults congregate at the base of the plant above the water level and suck the sap from the tillers. The affected plant dries up and gives a scorched appearance called “hopper burn”. Circular patches of drying and lodging of matured plant are typical symptoms caused by this pest. It is vector of grassy stunt, ragged stunt and wilted stunt diseases.

ETL
10 insects per hill at vegetative stage or 20 insects /hill at later stages.

Management
Use resistant varieties like Aruna, Karnataka, Karthika, Krishnaveni, Makon, Abhay, Asha, Divya, Py 3, Co 42, Ptb 33 and Ptb 21. Avoid close planting and provide 30 cm rogue spacing at every 2.5 m to reduce the pest incidence. Avoid use of excessive nitrogenous fertilizers. Control irrigation by intermittent draining. Set up light traps to monitor pest population and to control. Release of natural enemies like Lycosa pseudoannulata, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis. Avoid use of insecticides causing resurgence such as synthetic pyrethroids, methyl parathion, fenthion and quinalphos. Drain the water before the use of insecticides and direct the spray towards the base of the plants. Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 1000 ml (or) acephate 75 SP 625 gm (or) chlorpyriphos 25 EC 1250 ml (or) dichlorvos 76 WSC 350 ml/ha. Spray neem seed kernel extract 5% (25 kg/ha) (or) neem oil 2% (10 l/ha).

Natural Enemy
Egg parasitoids: Anagrus sp, Gonatocerus sp., Oligosita spp ., Nymphal/adult parasitoids: Haplogonatopus sp., Ecthrodelphax fairchildii., Elenchus sp (Sterpsiptera), Hexamermis sp (Mermithid). Predators:Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, Coccinella arcuata, Micraspis sp., Harmonia ctomaculata, C.rependa, Menochilus sexmaculatus, Brumoides suturalis, Microvelia douglasi atrolineata, Pseudogonatopus sp., Ophionea nigrofasciata, Lycosa pseudoannulata, Tetragnatha maxillosa, Argiope sp, Araneus sp, Oxyopes sp., Atypena formosana., Conocephalus longipennis, Agriocnemis pygmaea. Pathogens: Entomophthora spp, Fusarium sp., Fusarium oxysporum, Metarhizium spp, Beauveria bassiana, B.brongniartii.

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Friday, January 20, 2012

PESTS OF CHILLIES


PESTS OF CHILLIES
CHILLI THRIPS
Scirtothrips dorsalis
Caliothrips indicus
Frankliniella sulphurea
Thripidae: Thysanoptera
S. dorsalis is found in almost all chilly growing areas. It is a
polyphagus pest. Besides chilli, it also infests brinjal, cotton, groundnut,
castor, bottlegourd, guava, tea and grapevine. It is more common on unirrigated
chilli crop than irrigated one.
They are s lender, tiny, straw coloured insects with fringed wings.
A female adult inserts 40-48 white, minute eggs into veins.
Both nymphs and adults lacerate the leaf tissues and suck the oozing
sap, sometimes even the buds and flowers are attacked. Generally they
attack tender leaves and growing shoots. Rarely the older leaves are
attacked. Their damage results in
v The infested leaves curling upward, crumbling and shedding
v Infested buds turning brittle with petiole becoming brown and dropping
down.
v Affected fruits showing light brown scars.
Pest infestation is severe in dry weather. The damage ranges
between 30-50%.
One life cycle is completed on an average in 2- 2.5 weeks. There are
about 25 generations in a year. Reproduction in thrips is generally sexual,
parthenogenesis is also present.
MANAGEMENT
· Seed treatment with imidacloprid @ 3 -5 g/kg of seed.
· Foliar spraying with carbaryl 3g/l or phosalone 3ml/l or acephate 1 g/l
or fipronil 2 ml/l or spinosad 0.3 ml/l or diafenthiuron 1.2 g/l so as to
wet the undersurface of the leaves.
· Application of fipronil 0.3G 8 kg/acre at 15 and 45 days after
transplanting.
CHLLI POD BORERS
Spodoptera litura,S. exigua
Helicoverpa armigera; Noctuidae
Utetheisa pulchella; Arctiidae
Lepidoptera
Feeding by S. litura, S. exigua leads to irregular holes on the leaves
and fruits. Affected pods turn whitish and dry up. In fruits, seeds are also
eaten. Attack of H.armigera leads to round hole on fruits. In addition to
these borers, sometimes U. pulchella also feeds on the pericarp leaving
the seed intact. Ladder like marks are seen on chilli pod due to U.
pulchella . Their detailed history can be is given under pests of cotton and
millets (S. exigua ).
MANAGEMENT
1. Deep summer ploughing.
2. Monitoring with pheromone traps @ 4/acre
3. Raising trap crops like castor (S. litura ), marigold (H.armigera).
4. Spraying with SNPV/HaNPV at 250LE/acre in the evening.
5. Spraying novuluron 1.0 ml/l or diflubenzuron 1.0 g/l controls just
hatched larvae.
6. Foliar spraying of thiodicarb 1.0 g/l or acephate 1.5 g/l or chlorpyriphos
2.5 ml/l or spinosad 0.3ml/l or quinalphos 2 ml/l.
7. Poison baiting with rice bran 5 kg + chlorpyriphos 500 ml or carbaryl
500g + jaggery 500 g with water in the form of small balls in the
evening hours.
CHILLI APHIDS
Aphis gossypii, Myzus persicae
Aphididae: Hemiptera
They are polyphagous pests. Cloudy weather is very favorable for
multiplication of aphids. Heavy rains cause reduction in their population.
Adults are found in large numbers on the undersurface of leaves and
growing shoots of plants.
Both nymphs and adults suck sap and also excrete honeydew on
which black sooty mould develops affecting photosynthetic activity thus it
causing
v Retardation in growth and fruiting capacity of the plant.
v Sooty mould
Foliar spray with methyl demeton 1 ml/l or acephate 1.5 g/l is
effective.
CHILLI MITES
Polyphagotarsonemus latus
Tarsonemus translucens
Tarsonemidae
Tetranychus cinnabarinus
Tetranychidae: Acarina
A minor pest emerged as a major pest in recent past. The
infestation starts in the nursery after 40 days of germination. Severe
infestation is seen in transplanted crop of 2-3 months old. The tiny white
transparent mites are found in large numbers on the undersurface of
leaves under fine webs. Both nymphs and adults suck sap and devitalize
the plant causing ‘Murda’ disease of chillies. Infestation results in
v Downward curling of leaves,
v The affected leaves becoming inverted boat shaped,
v The leaves rolling down along the margin with elongation of petioles.
v Affected leaves turning dark green in certain cases.
v Younger leaves at the tip of branch clustering.
MANAGEMENT
· Foliar spraying of dicofol 5ml/l or wettable sulphur 3g/l.
· Synthetic pyrethroids not to be used.
· If both thrips and mites are noticed, spraying phosalone 3ml/l or
diafenthiuron 1.5 g /l or chlorfenapyr 2 ml/l.
CHILLI BLOSSOM MIDGE
Asphondylia capsici
Cecidomyiidae: Diptera
Fly is dark reddish brown mosquito like midge that lays eggs in
flower buds. Maggot is tiny pale orange colored and feeds on the floral
parts leading to poor development of fruits. The ovary is distorted into gall
like structure of varied shape.
Foliar spray with triazophos 2 ml/l or carbosulfan 2 ml/l followed by
chlorpyriphos 2.0 ml/l one week later is found effective.

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Thursday, November 17, 2011

maize-package of practices


Quality Protein Maize for Food & Nutritional Security in India
Quality Protein MaizeBaby CornSweet CornPop CornHigh Oil Corn


Production Technology:
In general, the management practices for quality protein maize (QPM) are almost same as normal grain maize. However, there are few specific considerations for higher productivity with good quality and better resource use efficiency which are described as follows.

Suitable areas for cultivation:

Alike normal maize, QPM can be grown in most parts of the country from plains to high altitudes of up to 2700 m. But, being a highly cross pollinated crop, there exists always chances of contamination under traditional maize growing areas and seasons. Therefore, for maintaining the purity and superior quality, the QPM, spatial and temporal isolation should be ensured either through growing in non-traditional areas or seasons.

Soils:

QPM can be grown successfully in wide range of soils ranging from loamy sand to clay. However, soils with good organic matter content having high water holding capacity with neutral pH are considered good for better production. Being a sensitive crop to moisture stresses particularly excess soil moisture; it is desirable to avoid low lying fields having poor drainage. Therefore, the fields having provision of proper drainage should be selected for cultivation of maize.


Selection of cultivars:

In India a total of nine cultivars of which 7 single cross hybrid, 1 three way cross hybrid and 1 composite of QPM having different maturity period and grain colour (Table 4) have been developed by the public sector Institutes. These cultivars have been developed and find suitable for their cultivation under different agro-climatic conditions having compatibility under different cropping systems and preference of the local people. However, farmers are advised to grow single cross hybrids for higher productivity but for the areas like tribal and high risk prone regions where hybrids cannot reach in time due to seed constraints, the farmers can go for cultivation of composites.


Photo 2. HQPM-1

Photo 3. HQPM-5

Photo 4. HQPM-7


Photo 5. VIVEK QPM 9

Photo 6. SHAKTIMAN-1

Photo 7. SHAKTIMAN-2


Photo 8. SHAKTIMAN-3

Photo 9. SHAKTIMAN-4

Photo 10. SHAKTI-1

Time of sowing:

The QPM can be grown in all seasons viz; Kharif, post monsoon, Rabi and Spring. For higher productivity particularly in Kharif season, for the farmers having sufficient irrigation facilities, it is desirable to complete the sowing 12-15 days prior to onset of monsoon. However, in rainfed areas, the sowing time should be coincided with onset of monsoon. The optimum time of sowing in different seasons are given in Table 5.


Seed rate and plant population:

The seed rate depends on seed size (genotype), season, sowing methods and the planter but, in general, 20 kg seed ha-1 is optimum for higher productivity and input use efficiency. A plant population of about 70000 to 80000 ha-1 with a plant geometry of 60 to 70 x 20 cm (row x plant) is optimum depending upon the season.

Seed treatment:

To protect the seed from seed and major soil borne diseases and insect-pests, it is always advisable to treat the seed with fungicides and insecticides before sowing as per the details given in Table 6.



Method of sowing:

Mainly the maize is sown directly through seed but during winters where fields are not vacant in time (till November), transplanting can be done successfully by raising the nursery. However, the method of sowing depends on season, cropping system, soil conditions and time of planting. The sowing methods for situation specificity are described as follows-
(i) Raised bed planting: In general the raised bed planting is best planting method for maize during monsoon and winter seasons both under excess moisture as well as limited irrigation availability conditions. Sowing should be done on the southern side of the east-west ridges/beds, which helps in Photo 11. Planting on permanent beds good germination. Planting should be done at proper spacing. Preferably, the raised bed planter (Photo 11) having inclined plate, cupping or roller type seed metering systems should be used for planting that facilitates in placement of seed and fertilizers at proper place in one operation that helps in getting good crop stand, higher productivity and resource use efficiency. Using raised bed planting technology, 20-30 % irrigation water can be saved with higher productivity. Moreover, under temporary excess soil moisture/water logging due to heavy rains, the furrows will act as drainage channels and crop can be saved from excess soil moisture stress.

Photo 11.Planting on permanent beds
(ii) Zero-till planting: Maize can be successfully grown without any preparatory tillage under no-till situation with less cost of cultivation, higher profitability and better resource use efficiency. Under such condition one should ensure good soil moisture at sowing and seed and fertilizers should be placed in band using zero-till seed-cum-fertilizer planter with furrow opener as per the soil texture and Photo 12. Zero-till maize field condition. Large number of farmers particularly under rice-maize systems in peninsular and eastern India (Photo 12) are practicing successful zero till planting and getting higher farm profitability.

Photo 12. Zero-till maize
(iii) Transplanting: Maize can also be established and grown successfully with transplanting during winter season. Under intensive cropping systems where field are not vacant in time and where chances of delayed planting exists. Therefore, for the situation where fields are vacated during December- January, it is advisable to grow nursery and transplant the seedlings in furrows and apply irrigation water for proper establishment. Using this technique, temporal isolation can also be maintained in corn growing regions for purity and good quality of QPM. For one hectare, 700 m2 area is required for nursery and the nursery should be raised during second fortnight of November.

Photo 13 Nursery raising,uprooting and transplating of maize during winter
The 30-40 days old seedlings (depending on the growth) should be transplanted during December-January in furrows (Photo 13) as the yield in furrows is always higher than flat (Figure 4).
(iv)Flat planting: For rainfed areas and on conserved moisture, flat planting can be done using seed-cum-ferti planters.
(v)Furrow planting: During spring season, it is always advisable to grow maize in furrows for proper growth, seed setting and higher productivity.

Figure 4 comparativegrain yield (t/ha) of maize transplanted in furrows and flats at different dates
Nutrient management:

Maize in general and hybrids in particular are very responsive to nutrients. Besides, chemical fertilizers, it is very responsive to organic manures. The application of nutrients depends mainly on soil nutrient status and cropping system. For getting desirable yields, the nutrient applications should be done in such a way that matched the soil supplying capacity and plant demand (SSNM approach) keeping in view of the preceding crop (cropping system). Results of multilocation trails under All India Coordinated Research Project on maize (Figure 5) revealed that SSNM approach led to remarkably higher productivity over existing recommended practice acoss the ecologies. The maize in general responds well to organic manures. The results of integrated nutrient management (INM) trials on QPM under AICRP on Maize demonstrated the response of QPM to FYM (Figure 6). Therefore, in general application of 10 t FYM ha-1, 10-15 days prior to sowing supplemented with 150-180 kg N, 70-80 kg P2O5, 70-80 kg K2O and 25 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 gives higher economic yields. Full doses of P, K and Zn should be applied as basal. Results of multi-location trials carried out under AICRP on maize revealed that application of nitrogen in 5-splits (as mentioned below) leads to higher productivity and nitrogen use efficiency compared to recommended 3- splits (Figure 7). N application at grain filling results in better grain filling. Therefore, nitrogen application should be done in five splits as mentioned below for higher N use efficiency.

1. 10 % N should be applied as basal

2. 20% N at 4 leaf stage

3. 30% N at 8 leaf stage

4. 30% N at flowering stage

5. 10% N at grain filling

Figure 5 Performance of SSNM in Kharif maize over other practices across the locations
Figure 6 Yield (kg/ha) response of QPM under different soil and climatic conditions
Figure 7 Comparative grain yield (kg/ha) of maize with 3 v/s 5-splits of nitrozen at different location
Water management:

The water management depends on season as about 80 % of maize is cultivated during monsoon season particularly under rainfed conditions. However, in areas with assured irrigation facilities depending upon the rains and moisture holding capacity of the soil, irrigation should be applied as and when required by the crop and first irrigation should be applied very carefully wherein water should Photo 14. Optium of Height of Water in Furrows not overflow on the ridges/beds. In general, the irrigation should be applied in furrows upto 2/3rd height of the ridges/beds (Photo 14). Young seedlings, knee high stage, flowering and grain filling are the most sensitive stages Photo 15. Irrigation in alternate furrows for water stress and irrigation should be ensured at these stages. In raised bed planting system, the crop can also be irrigated in alternate furrow to save more irrigation water (photo 15). In rainfed areas, tied-ridges (Photo 16) are helpful in conserving the rainwater for its availability in the root zone for longer period. For winter maize, it is advisable to keep soil wet (frequent & mild irrigation) during 15 December to 15 February to protect the crop from frost injury.

Photo 14 Optimum height of water in furrows

Photo 15 Irrigation in alternate furrows
Photo 16 Tied ridging


Weed Management:

Weeds are the serious problem in maize(Photo 17), particularly in monsoon season that competes with maize for nutrient and causes yield loss up to 35 %. Therefore, timely weed management is needed for achieving higher yield. Atrazine being a selective and broad-spectrum herbicide in maize checks the emergence of wide spectrum of weeds. Pre-emergence application of atrazine @ of 1.0-1.5 kg a.i ha-1 in 600 litre water is effective way for control of weeds. While spraying, the person who is doing spray should move backward so that the atrazine film on the soil surface may not be disturbed. Preferably three boom flat fan nozzle may be used for proper ground coverage and saving time.




Photo 17 Weed infestation in maize
One to two hoeings are recommended for aeration and uprooting of the remaining weeds, if any. While doing hoeing, the person should move backward to avoid compaction and better aeration. For areas where zero tillage is practiced, pre-plant application (10-15 days prior to seeding) of non-selective herbicides viz., Glyphosate @ 1.0 kg a.i. ha-1 in 400-600 litre water or paraquat @ 0.5 kg a.i. ha-1 in 600 litre water is recommended to control the weeds.

Photo 18 Pre-emergence herbicide application
Crop protection:

Insect-pest management

Maize stalk borer (Chilo partellus) is a major pest during monsoon season throughout the country that lays eggs on lower side of the leaves 10-25 days after germination. The larva of the Chilo enters in the whorl and cause damage in the leaves. Whereas Sesemia (Photo 20) inference occurs during winter season particularly in peninsular India where winter maize is important crop and the moth of the Sesamia is nocturnal and lays eggs on lower leaf sheath. The larvae of the Sesamia enter the plant near the base and cause damage to stem. For control of Chilo, foliar spray of 0.1 % Endosulfan {700 ml (35 EC) in 250 litre water} 10 days after germination is effective. It can also be controlled by release of 8 Trichocards (Trichogramma chilonis) per ha at 10 days after germination. Intercropping of cowpea with maize is an eco-friendly option for reducing the incidence of Chilo on maize. Results of the trials conducted under AICRP on maize revealed that compared to other crops, the Chilo egg load on maize was drastically reduced when it was intercropped with cowpea (Figure 8). Termite (Photo 21) is also an important pest in many areas and for control of this fepronil granules should be applied @ 20 kg ha-1 followed by light irrigation. If the termite incidence is in pathches, fepronil should be applied spot application @ 2-3 granuled/plant. applies Chloropyriphos @ 2.5 litre/ha mixed in sand followed by irrigation.

Figure 8. Effect of different intercrops in maize on Chilo egg laying

Photo 19: Chilo partillus

Photo 20: Sesamia
Photo 21: Termite
Disease management:

Several diseases occur during different seasons in various parts of the country that leads to loss to yield if not managed properly in time. Estimated losses due to major diseases of maize in India is 13.2% of which foliar diseases (5 %), stalk rots, root rots, ear rots (5 %) cause major yield losses. The major diseases and their management practices are described as below-
  • Turcicum leaf blight (TLB): Spray Zineb/Meneb @ 2.5-4.0 g/liter of water (2- 4 applications) at 8-10 days interval

  • Maydis leaf blight(MLB): Spray of Dithane 2-75 or Zineb @ 2.4 – 4.0 g/liter of water (2-4 applications) at 8-10 days interval after first appearance of symptoms of disease

  • Polysora Rust: Three sprays of Dithane M-45 @ 2-2.5 gm/liter beginning from first appearance of symptoms at 15 days interval.

  • Banded leaf and sheath blight (BLSB): Seed treatment of peat based formulation (Pseudomonas fluorescence) @ 16 g/kg of seed or as soil application @ 7g/liter of water (soil drenching) or foliar spray of Sheethmar (Validamycin) @ 2.7 ml /liter water.

  • Post Flowering Stalk Rot of Maize (PFSR): Avoid water stress at flowering. Use balance dose of nutrients wherein potassium application helps in minimising the disease. Use of bio-control agents (Trichoderma Formulation) in furrows after mixing with FYM @ 10g/kg FYM at 10 days prior to its use in the field.

  • Downy mildews (DM): Seed treatment with fungicides like Apron 35 WS @ 2.5 g/kg seed.


    • Photo 22: Turcicum Leaf Blight
    Photo 23: Banded leaf and sheath blight

    Photo 24: Post Flowering Stalk Rot
    Photo 25: Sorghum Downy Mildew
    Harvesting and post harvest management:

    Harvesting should be done at optimum moisture content (20%) in grain to avoid post harvest losses due to store grain pests and diseases. The harvested cobs should be sun dried before shelling and should be shelled at 13-14 % grain moisture. Shelling can be done manually or by power operated maize Sheller. For proper storage of the grain, drying should be done till the moisture content is reduced to 8-10 % and should be kept in aerated jute bags.
     
    IntroductionNutritive ValueUses of QPMProduction Technology
    Seed Production TechnologySuccess StoryValue Added Products
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    Tuesday, August 30, 2011

    chillies-package of practices

    Cultivation Practices of Chillies in A.P 

    B.N : Capsicum annum L
    Family : Solanaceae

    Climate : Chillies are grown in both tropical and sub-tropical regions from sea level to 2000m attitude. It grows well in warm and humid climate and a temperature of 20-25ºC. The crop is killed by freezing temperatures and frost. A warm and humid climate favours growth while warm and dry weather enhances fruit maturity. It is found to be grown successfully as a rainfed crop in areas receiving an annual rainfall of 850-1200mm. Low soil moisture during blossom development and fruit formation causes bud, blossom and fruit drop. Excessive rainfall is detrimental to the crop and leads to poor fruit set, defoliation and rotting of plants. High temperature and dry winds are injurious to plants and lead to flower drop. A day length of 9-10 hrs light stimulates plant growth and increases productivity by 20-24% besides improving the quality of capsicum.
    Soil : Chillies are found to grow in a variety of soils provided they are well drained well aerated and rich in organic matter. In ill drained soils, the plants shed their leaves and turn sickly and fruit drop takesplace due to waterlogging condition. It can be grown successfully in sandy loam soil provided adequate irrigation and manuring are carriedout. Black soils are also suitable for rainfed crop. An Ideal soil for chilli is light loamy or sandy loam rich in lime and inorganic matter. Strongly acidic and alkaline soils are not suitable for chilli growing. Chilli can be grown in saline soil but seed germination, vigour of plants are affected by salinity. The optimum soil pH for this crop is 6.0 to 7.0. In acid soil liming will be beneficial.
    Field (Tillage) preparation : The field is prepared by giving 4 to 5 ploughings followed by harrowing and planting is done to get fine tilth. Compost or FYM @ 15-20 t/ha should be spread and mixed well in the soil at least 15-20 days before sowing. At the last ploughing Aldrim or Heftaf @ 10-15 kg/ac should be applied to the soil to protect the crop from white ants and other soil pests. In the rainy season ridge & furrow system or raised beds should be made specially in heavy rainfall areas to avoid water stagnation. For irrigated crops ridge and furrows are made. The field can also be divided into small plots for convenience of transplanting / sowing and irrigation.
    Seed Rate :
    Direct sowing : 1.5 to 2.0 kg seed/ha.
    Through seedlings : 800 to 1000 g/ha
    Hybrids : 350 – 400 g/ha
     Seed Treatment :
    150g Trisodium orthophosphate /kg seed to protect from viral diseases.
    To protect from sapsucking insects – 8.0 g Imidachloprid / kg seed.
    To protect from seed borne diseases – 3.0 g/kg seed of Captan / Thiran / Mancozeb.
    Nursery Raising :
    Well drained, elevated and fertile areas in open sun light is selected for nursery and that should be ploughed to get fine tilth. The nursery bed should be prepared with a size of 6m length, 10m width and 15cm height. Well decomposed FYM/Compost @ 20-25kg/bed is applied before 20-25 days of sowing. About 250 kg N PK (15:15:15) fertilizer mixture should be incorporated along with 5-6g furadon or phorate granules on each bed. The seeds are sown thinly preferably in lines spaced 5cm apart and well decomposed compost in powder form along with fine, friable soil is sprinkled over the seed about 1.0cm thick. Find mulching with paddy straw can be given to prevent excessive moisture loss. The mulch is removed after the seed germination. Drenching of nursery bed with Fytolon (0.25g / lit water) at 15 days intervals can be given against damping off disease specially in the rainy season. The seed germinate in 6-10 days. Seedlings become ready for transplanting in 35-45 days, when they are about 12-15 cm height. Short and thick stemmed seedlings are preferred for better establishment and performance.
    Time of sowing in nursery: May – June for rainfed
    Sept – Oct for irrigated crop.
    Planting : 6 week old seedlings are preferred for transplanting in the mainfield. Time : Kharif – July – Aug
    Rabi – Oct-Nov
    Spacing :
    For rainfed crop : 56x15cm @ one seedlings per hill
    For irrigated crop: 56x56 (or) 60x60cm (or) 90x60cm @ two seedlings / till Panting can also be done on bunds.

     Varieties :

    Salient Features

    G-3
    		Fruits are long, suitable for rainfed conditions
    yield : 15-18 q/ha under rainfed; 25-30 q/ha under irrigated conditions.
    G-4 (Bhagya Lakshmi):
    		It is a high yielding varieties of A.P. Plants are tall & dense. Fruits are 8-9 cm long, bright red colour. Capsicum content 0.52 mg / g fruit. Suitable for green and dry chilli. Tolerant to virus.
    Yield : 40-45q/ha
    G-5 (Andhra Jyothi)
    		Plants are similar to G-4 Fruits are short and stout, bright red in colour. Suitable for irrigated conditions in Nellore, Chittore, Srikakulam, Vizag dts.
    Yield : 11-12 Q/ha – rainfed
    30-32 q/ha – irrigated conditions.
    Capsicum content (dry chilli): 0.65 mg//g fruit
    Sindhur
    (CA-960:
    		Fruits are long and stout. Suitable for both green and dry chilli. Suitable for irrigated conditions. Early maturity. Less pengent
    Yield : 45-50 q/ha
    Kiran (LCA – 200)
    		Fruits are long, suitable for Telangana areas under assured irrigated condition.
    Yield : 40-45 q/ha. Fairly tolerant to Thrips, Aphids and mites.
    Aparna (CA – 1068)
    		Fruits are medium size, blunt tips and yellow on ripening. This is a little late var. Suitable for Capsicum extraction.  – withstand drought as well as high moisture content & to some extent salinity.
    Yield : 12-14 q/ha dry chilli – under rainfed
    30-35 q/ha dry chilli – irrigated
    Bhaskar (LCA-235):
    		Fruit are not long but mole Pungent. Suitable for both rainfed and under irrigated conditions in Andhra Pradesh more tolerant to Virus. Suitable for all districts of A.P.
    Yield : 55-60 q/ha.
    Prakash (LCA-206):
    Fruits are long, used for green and dry chilli, National variety suitable for cultivation both under rainfed & irrigated conditions. Yield : 45-50 q/ha.
    Lam – 305 (LCA-305)
    		Fruits are long and stout. Suitable for irrigated conditions both for green and dry chilli.
    Yield : 50-55 q/ha.
    LCA – 353
    Plants are medium height, bushy. Fruits are 7-9cm long, thin, bright red color. Suitable for both green and dry chillies.
    LCA – 424
    Fruits are long (10-12 cm) and stout. Less Pungent. Comes to maturity early compared to Warangal Local variety.

    Nutrient Management :

    Chilli needs a judicious application of manures and fertilizers since it is a long growing season crop. Application of FYM @ 20t/ha or growing a green manure crop and incorporating the same in soil increases yield.
    For rainfed crop :
    60kg N – 40kg P2O5 – 50Kg K2O / ha. The whole of FYM, Phosphorus and half N and K2O should be applied in the last ploughing before transplanting and the rest of N and K2O is applied as top dressing two months after transplanting.
    For irrigated crop : 100 Kg N – 60kg P2O5 – 75 kg K2O / ha. Entire dose of Phosphorus + Half N and Potash are applied as basal in the last ploughing. The remaining dose of N and Potash applied as top dressing in two equal split doses at one month interval after transplanting. Foliar application of Urea @ 2% is beneficial for this crop when raised under rainfed conditions.
    Use of growth regulators :
    Flower and fruit drop is a serious problem in chilli and it depends on high temperature, low soil moisture, shading and light intensity. This can be controlled By foliar spraying of Planofix (NAA – Naphthalene Acetic Acid) @ 20 to 40 ppm (20-40 mg / L) twice with 15 days interval or 2, 4-D (2,4-Dichloro Phenoxy Acetic Acid) @ 2 to 4 ppm at flower bud initiation stage reduces flower drop and increases fruit set and yield. Application of Ethrel or Ethephon @ 300 pp foliar spray increases fruit set and yield.
    Irrigation : Regular irrigation is an important factor for the successful production of chilli crop. The first irrigation is given at the time of transplanting and the subsequent irrigations are given once in a week or 10 days depending on the weather and soil moisture condition. In light soils irrigation is given at 10-12 days intervals, in black cotton soils at 3 week intervals and in summer at 5 to 6 days interval. After every harvest irrigation is given. Flowering and fruit formation are the critical stages for moisture. Scheduling of irrigation is done at IW / CPE ratio of 0.6

     Intercultivation & Weeding :
    Interculture is necessary to keep the field free from weeds, which apart from robbing the crop nutrients, harbour insects and diseases. Frequent shallow cultivation should be done at regular intervals. Application of weedicides for controlling weeds is found effective. Alachlor (Lasso) 50 E.C @ 2.0 lit / ha as pre-planting spray along with one hand weeding (or) TOK-E-25 @ 2.0 lit/ha with one hand weeding are effective in weed control. In South India, Fluchloralin @ 1.0 L a.i/ha in 500 Lit. of water sprayed on the soil just before panting followed by irrigation controls the weeds.
    Inter Cropping & Crop rotation :
    Under rainfed conditions chilli is successfully rotated with jowar, ragi, cotton, groundnut and castor and as an irrigated crop it is grown in rotation with sugarcane, turmeric, beams, maize or with vegetables. Brinjal, tomato and potato are not recommended for rotation. It can also be inter cropped with ginger, cucurbits, okra and onion. In some places chillies are also grown as mixed crop in irrigated conditions.
    Pests and Disease Management :
    Insects :
    1) Chilli Thrips (Scritothrips dosalis) :
    Common pest which affect the crop throughout the life cycle. The nymphs and adults infest tender leaves and feed on the sap causing leaf curling. Severe infestation leads to heavy curling of leaves, stunted crop growth and damage of buds and flowers. Thrips also cause transmission of leaf curl virus.
    Control :
    1.Thrips can be effectively controlled by spraying carbaryl @ 3.0g (or) Phosalone @ 3ml or Dimethoate (Rogor – 30EC) or Monocrotophos @ 1.5 ml or Acephate @ 1.5g or Spinosad @ 0.25ml per lit of water.
    2.Fipranil 0.3%G @ 8kg/ac applied to soil at 15 and 45 days after transplanting.
    3.As a preventive measure – seed treatment is done with Imidachloprid
     
     
    2. Aphids (Aphis gossypii) :
    They suck the cell sap from the leaves and petioles. The quality of the produce is spoiled by imparting blackish colour to the calyx and pods. Plant growth stunted, young leaves become clustered.
    Control :
    1.Effectively controlled by spraying the crop with monocrotophos @ 1.5ml (or) methyl demeton @ 
    2.0ml or Acephate @ 1.5g / lit water.
    3. Mites (Hemitorsonemus Latus) : The tiny spider like creatines attack chilli shoot and inflorescence, causing malformation and shedding of flowers. Nymphs and adults suck the cell sap and devitalize the plants.
    Control : 
    1.Spraying the crop with Kelthane (Dicofol) @ 5.0ml or Sulphur (Water soluble) @ 3.0g / lit of water can control this insect.
    2.Synthetic Pyrithroids should not be used.
    3.Reduce the use of Nitrogen fertilizers.
    4. Fruit / Pod Borers : Spodoptera Liture; S. exigua
    Helicoverpa armigera
    The caterpillars eat leaves and later on bores the pods which results in the deterioraction of quality and market price of the produce.
    Control:
    1.Spraying of Acephate @ 1.0g (or) Thiodecarb @ 1.0g (or) chlorpyriphos @ 3.0ml (or) quinolphos @ 2.0ml / lit water.
    2.Integrated pest management (IPM) : Should be followed. Control of borers by poision baits. (5kg bran + 500g carbaryl or 500ml Monocrotophos or Chloropyriphos + 500g jaggery mixed with sufficient quantity of water )and made into small balls and broad cost them in the field in the evening time, so that worms come out from the cracks in the night and eat the bait and are killed.
    3.To monitor the borers incidence, use 4 to 5 Pheromone traps / acre.
     
    4.Deep ploughing is to be done to expose the insects from the soil.
    5.Indescriminate use of pesticides should be stopped.
    6.Grow trap crops like castor, marigold in the field.
    7.Biological control with NPV (Nuclear polyhedrosis virus ) should be done.
    For Helicoverpa – use H-NPV ; for spodoptera use S-NPV solution.
    Diseases :
    1.Damping off (Pythium aphanidermatum) :
    It is a common disease mainly occur in nursery beds. The disease infected seedlings rot at ground level and then the plants fall over ground. The seedlings die in patches. It is most damaging on moist soils with poor drainage due to dampness.
    Control :
    1.Seed bed should be treated with Formalin before sowing the seed. 2.Seeds should be treated with hot water (1/2 an hour at 52ºC) or Cereson or Agrason G.N @ 2.0g /kg seed. 3.In the nursery bed – seedlings are protected by spraying 0.5 to 1.0% Bordeaux mixture or copper oxyhloride (coc) @ 3.0g / lit two times one at germination and second spray one week later. 4.Nursery should be grow in raised beds to avoid water stagnation.
    2.Fusarium Wilt :
    Symptoms are wilting of the plant and upward and inward rolling of leaves. Leaves turn yellow and die. It is a soil borne disease.
    Control :
    1.Grow resistant vars.
    2.Drenching the soil with 1% Bordeanx mixture or fytolan @ 3g / lit
    3.Seed treatment with Bavistin @ 3g / kg seed.
      
     
    3. Frog – eye – leaf spot (Cercospora Capsici) :
    Symptoms are chlorotic lesions, angular to irregular in shape and later turning grayish brown with sporulation at the centre of the spot on leaves. Severely infected leaves drop off prematurely resulting in poor yield.
    Control :
    Spray Mancozeb @ 2.5g or Carbendazim @ 1.0g / lit water effectively control the disease.
    4. Bacterial leaf spot – (Xanthomonas vesicatoria) : 
    Cause serious damage to chilli leaves and fruits. Symptoms are small, dark greasy spots on leaf petiole and tender plant parts. Water soaked spots appear on green fruits. In severe cases leaes drop off and causes considerable loss to the crop.
    Control :
    1.Grow resistant vars. (G-4, X-206, G-5)
    2.Spray COC @ 3.0g + 0.1g streptocyclin / lit water two times with weekly interval.

    5. Antrhacnose & Ripe fruit rot (Collectotrichum capsici) : It is a serious fungal disease of chilli. Symptoms are dark, sun ken spots are formed on fruits and pink colour dots appear in the centre of the sunken spots. The fungus cause ‘Die-back’ of the twigs also, attacks mainly the upper portion of the plants and spreads gradually from top to downward, as a results branches dry up. Moist weather, shade and dew favour the occurance of the disease.
    Control :
    1.Spray captan 2g or Mancozeb 2.5g or COC 3.0g / lit. water at flowering and fruit ripening stage.
    2.Seed trt. With captan 3.0g or Mancozeb 3.0g / kg seed before sowing.
    3.Removing and burning the affected plats and branches.

    6. Powdery Mildew : (Oidiopsis taurica (or) Laveilula taurice)
    Symptoms :
    Development of Powdery mass on the leaves and rapid defoliation of the plants.
    Control:
    Spray sulphur (water soluble) 3 g or Dinocap 1.0ml / lit water.


    7. Leaf curl virus : Caused by Tobacco virus – 16 or Nicotiana virus – 10, Symptoms are : Curling of leaves small size, shortened internodes, dwarfened plants and assumes withches broom appearance. Flower buds abscise before attaining full size, fruits formed are small and deformed. The disease usually spreads through insect vectors such as thrips and aphids.
    Control :
    1.No chemicals for virus control.
    2.Grow resistant varieties – G-4, LCA-235, LCA – 334.
    3.Seed should not be collected from virus affected plants.
    4.Remove the affected plants and destroy.
    5.Control the vectors by applying phorate or carbofuran granules which indirectly check the disease.
    6.Indescriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides should be discouraged.
    7.Grow tall crops like jowar, maize around the field.
    8.Seed treatment with Tri sodium orthophosphate @ 150g / lit water.
    Harvesting :
    The stage of maturity at which chillies are picked depends on the type and purpose for which they are grown. Flowering begins 40-60 DAT. First harvesting is done at the green stage to stimulate further flush of flowering and fruitset. Chillies are harvested at red stage for canning prpose. Chillies used for drying are picked at fully ripened red stage and it takes another month for dry chillies. There after ripe fruits are picked at intervals of 1-2 weeks and harvesting contrinues over a period of 3 months with 6-8 pickings depending on season, variety and cultural practices. Generally the yield of fresh green chillies to 3 to 4 times higher than that of dry chillies. 100kg of fresh ripe fruits yields 25-30kg dry chillies depending on the variety.
    Yield :
    10 to 15 q/ha dry pods – in rainfed conditions.
    20-25 q/ha dry pods – in irrigated conditions.
    Drying :
    Chillies are perishable having 70-80% moisture content but for safe storage, moisture should 10%. The chillies are dried under the sun on cement floor (tarpalene sheets) for a period of 10-15 days depending on weather conditions. Excessive delay in drying resuts in growth of microflora and subsequent loss in quality. Commercially it is dried at about 54ºC for 2 to 3 days. The dried fruits can be transported or stored in gunny bags.
    Storage :
    Chillies are sold in fresh condition soon after picking. Green chillies may be kept under good condition for about 40 days at 32ºF and 95% R.H. The dried chillies can be stored in dry places or ware houses or stores safely for 5 to 6 months or more when they are well protected from insect pests.    Equipment / Implements used at different crop stages
    1.Field Preparation
    a.Country plough / MB plough – To plough to field to get fine tilth.
    b.Harrows : To break the clods exposed after ploughing.
    c.To level the field uniformly.
    2.Intercultivation :
    a.for weeding : Khurpis, row weeders are used to remove the weeds.
    3.Plant Protection :
    Sprayers :

    used for spraying insecticides and fungicides to control pests and diseases. 
    4.Harvesting :
    Sickles are used to cut the crop.
    Drying :
    On commercial scale, mechanical driers are used in case of chillies.
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